So far so Good

Colleagues, its been wonderful going through this interesting course. I don't know about you, but I must say that I have gained a lot of insight into INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN. The exposure has been owesome and I know it is going to go a long way in helping realising my research dreams. As I pointed out in my inroduction, I want to be able to use educational technology in effective distance education delivery and I am optimistic that this course will be one of the strong tools to help me realise this dream.

Thanks to all colleagues and Dr. Moore.

Learning and Instructional Theories

Every instructional design should have a theoretical base. Theory guides instruction, gives order and consistency. It serves as a road-map keeping instructors on course.
The question of, which theory to use for a given instruction depends on a number of factors;

1. Theoretical orientations of the individual

2. nature of the instructional design task, that is the conditions and requirements of the instruction

3. preference of the clients or project sponsors with personal views on how effectively students learn.

It should be noted that, basically to maintain student motivation, promote learning activity and analyse tasks into objectively measurable component outcomes, behavioural principles are most helpful in structuring conditions of instruction.

Also, when designers with different theoretical perspective and expertise collaborate, it yields good results.

It is good for instructional designers therefore to have a general knowledge about all these theories to enable them apply each appropraitely in a given instruction to achieve effeciency and effectiveness.

Phase 8

This particular phase has really been challenging due to the fact that it has to do with review of all the phases. All the same, I had to pull through since it is always important to "finish hard". I really hope to get there soon.

Developing Evaluation Instruments

Developing evaluation instruments has a strong basis on instructional objectives. The focus in the objective should direct the selection of evaluation instrument to be used.If knowledge is the focus in the objective, then objective tests might be appropraite. If the focus is on synthesis or application, then constructed-response or problem solving, might be appropraite. If it is on performance (psychomotor) then the direct or indirect testing of actual skills might be appropraite.

For example, if in the objective it is stated that by the end of the lesson students will be able to define entreprenuership then a short-answer test just to elicit for recall of knowledge might be appropraite in this case.

Writing objective test questions

Question types
Multiple choice questions (MCQs) are the traditional 'choose one from a list' of possible
answers. True/False questions require a student to assess whether a statement is true or not.
Assertion-Reason questions combine elements of MCQ and true-false. Multiple response questions (MRQs) are similar to MCQs, but involve the selection of more
than one answer from a list. Graphical hotspot questions involve selecting an area(s) of the screen, by moving a marker to the required position. Advanced types of hotspot questions include labelling and building questions.

Text/Numerical questions involve the input of text or numbers at the keyboard. Matching questions involve linking items in one list to items in a second list. Sore finger questions have been used in language teaching and computer programming, where one word, code or phrase is out of keeping with the rest of a passage. It could be presented as a 'hot spot' or text input type of question. Ranking questions require the student to relate items in a column to one another and can be used to test the knowledge of sequences, order of events, level of gradation.
Sequencing questions require the student to position text or graphic objects in a given
sequence. These are particularly good for testing methodology. Field simulation questions offer simulations of real problems or exercises. Other question types require students to identify and/or manipulate images. Students may be asked to plot a graph, complete a matrix, draw a line or build up an image using parts provided.

Multiple choice questions
Parts of a multiple choice question:
A traditional multiple choice question (or item) is one in which a student chooses one answer from
a number of choices supplied. A multiple choice question consists of
· a stem - the text of the question
· options - the choices provided after the stem
· the key: the correct answer in the list of options
· distracters: the incorrect answers in the list of options


Example of a multiple choice question

As societies increase in complexity from folk to industrial, social control is more
likely to be invested in the
a. family
b. school
c. state
d. peer group
e. religious structures
(Question from Graduate Record Examination, Sociology Test 1997-1999)


Suggestions for constructing multiple choice questions
Writing stems

1. Present a single, definite statement to be completed or answered by one of the several
given choices
A. Weak question: Polysaccharides
a. are made up of thousands of smaller units called monosaccharides
b. are NOT found in the aloe vera leaf
c. are created during photosynthesis
d. can be described by the chemical formula: CHHOH
B. Improved question: Polysaccharides of the plant cell wall are synthesized mainly in
a. the endoplasmic reticulum
b. the cytosol
c. the plasma membrane
d. the Golgi complex
e. amyloplasts
In the top example, there is no sense from the stem what the question is asking. The
second example more clearly identifies the question and offers the student a set of
homogeneous choices.
stem
key
distracters

2. Avoid unnecessary and irrelevant material

A. Weak question: Paul Muldoon, an Irish postmodern poet who uses experimental
and playful language, uses which poetic genre in "Why Brownlee Left"?
a. sonnet
b. elegy
c. narrative poem
d. dramatic monologue
e. haiku
B. Improved question: Paul Muldoon uses which poetic genre in "Why Brownlee Left"?
a. sonnet
b. elegy
c. narrative poem
d. dramatic monologue
e. haiku
The top example contains material irrelevant to the question.

3. Use clear, straightforward language in the stem of the item. Questions that are

constructed using complex wording may become a test of reading comprehension
rather than an assessment of whether the student knows the subject matter.

Weak example: As the level of fertility approaches its nadir, what is the most likely
ramification for the citizenry of a developing nation?
a. a decrease in the labour force participation rate of women
b. a dispersing effect on population concentration
c. a downward trend in the youth dependency ratio
d. a broader base in the population pyramid
e. an increased infant mortality rate
Improved question: A major deline in fertility in a developing nation is likely to produce
a. a decrease in the labour forces participation rate of women
b. a dispersing effect on population concentration
c. a downward trend in the youth dependency ratio
d. a broader base in the population pyramid
e. an increased infant mortality rate

4. Use negatives sparingly. If negatives must be used, capitalize, underscore embolden
or otherwise highlight.

Weak question: Which of the following is not a symptom of osteoporosis?
a. decreased bone density
b. frequent bone fractures
c. raised body temperature
d. lower back pain
Improved question: Which of the following is a symptom of osteoporosis?
a. decreased bone density
b. raised body temperature
c. hair loss
d. painful joints

5. Put as much of the question in the stem as possible, rather than duplicating material in
each of the options. (Gronlund 1988)

Weak question: Theorists of pluralism have asserted which of the following?
a. The maintenance of democracy requires a large middle class.
b. The maintenance of democracy requires autonomous centres of
contervailing power.
c. The maintenance of democracy requires the existence of a multiplicity of
religious groups.
d. The maintenance of democracy requires a predominantly urban population.
e. The maintenance of democracy requires the separation of governmental
powers.
Improved question: Theorists of pluralism have asserted that the maintenance of
democracy requires
a. a large middle class
b. autonomous centres of contervailing power
c. the existence of a multiplicity of religious groups
d. a predominantly urban population
e. the separation of governmental powers.

Evaluation

Evaluation is the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object
The Goals of Evaluation
The generic goal of most evaluations is to provide "useful feedback" to a variety of audiences. Most often, feedback is perceived as "useful" if it aids in decision-making. But the relationship between an evaluation and its impact is not a simple one -- studies that seem critical sometimes fail to influence short-term decisions, and studies that initially seem to have no influence can have a delayed impact when more congenial conditions arise. Despite this, there is broad consensus that the major goal of evaluation should be to influence decision-making or policy formulation through the provision of empirically-driven feedback.

Types of Evaluation
There are many different types of evaluations depending on the object being evaluated and the purpose of the evaluation. Perhaps the most important basic distinction in evaluation types is that between formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluations strengthen or improve the object being evaluated -- they help form it by examining the delivery of the program, the quality of its implementation, and the assessment of the organizational context, personnel, procedures, inputs, and so on. Summative evaluations, in contrast, examine the effects or outcomes of some object -- they summarize it by describing what happens subsequent to delivery of the program; assessing whether the object can be said to have caused the outcome; determining the overall impact of the causal factor beyond only the immediate target outcomes; and, estimating the relative costs associated with the object.
Formative evaluation includes several evaluation types:

•needs assessment determines who needs the program, how great the need is, and what might work to meet the need
•evaluability assessment determines whether an evaluation is feasible and how stakeholders can help shape its usefulness
•structured conceptualization helps stakeholders define the program or technology, the target population, and the possible outcomes
•implementation evaluation monitors the fidelity of the program or technology delivery
•process evaluation investigates the process of delivering the program or technology, including alternative delivery procedures
Summative evaluation can also be subdivided:
•outcome evaluations investigate whether the program or technology caused demonstrable effects on specifically defined target outcomes
•impact evaluation is broader and assesses the overall or net effects -- intended or unintended -- of the program or technology as a whole
•cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis address questions of efficiency by standardizing outcomes in terms of their dollar costs and values.
•secondary analysis reexamines existing data to address new questions or use methods not previously employed
•meta-analysis integrates the outcome estimates from multiple studies to arrive at an overall or summary judgement on an evaluation question.

Evaluation Questions and Methods
Evaluators ask many different kinds of questions and use a variety of methods to address them. These are considered within the framework of formative and summative evaluation as presented above.

In formative research the major questions and methodologies are:

What is the definition and scope of the problem or issue, or what's the question?

Formulating and conceptualizing methods might be used including brainstorming, focus groups, nominal group techniques, Delphi methods, brain writing, stakeholder analysis, lateral thinking, input-output analysis, and concept mapping.

Where is the problem and how big or serious is it?

The most common method used here is "needs assessment" which can include: analysis of existing data sources, and the use of sample surveys, interviews of constituent populations, qualitative research, expert testimony, and focus groups.

How should the program be delivered to address the problem?

Some of the methods already listed apply here, as do detailing methodologies like simulation techniques, or multivariate methods like multi attribute utility theory or exploratory causal modeling; decision-making methods; and project planning and implementation methods like flow charting, PERT/CPM, and project scheduling.
How well is the program or technology delivered?
Qualitative and quantitative monitoring techniques, the use of management information systems, and implementation assessment would be appropriate methodologies here.


The questions and methods addressed under summative evaluation include:
What type of evaluation is feasible?

Evaluability assessment can be used here, as well as standard approaches for selecting an appropriate evaluation design.
What was the effectiveness of the program?
One would choose from observational and correlational methods for demonstrating whether desired effects occurred, and quasi-experimental and experimental designs for determining whether observed effects can reasonably be attributed to the intervention and not to other sources.

What is the net impact of the program?

Econometric methods for assessing cost effectiveness and cost/benefits would apply here, along with qualitative methods that enable us to summarize the full range of intended and unintended impacts.
Clearly, this introduction is not meant to be exhaustive. Each of these methods, and the many not mentioned, is supported by an extensive methodological research literature. This is a formidable set of tools. But the need to improve, update and adapt these methods to changing circumstances means that methodological research and development needs to have a major place in evaluation work.

Confirmative evaluation goes beyond formative and summative evaluation;it moves traditional evaluation a step closer to full-scope evaluation. During confirmative evaluation, the evaluation, training, or HPT practitioner collects, analyzes, and interprets data related to behavior, accomplishment, and results in order to determine “the continuing competence of learners or the continuing effectiveness of instructional materials” (Hellebrandt and Russell, 1993, p. 22) and to verify the continuous quality improvement of education and training programs (Mark and Pines, 1995). The concept of going beyond formative and summative evaluation is not new. The first reference to confirmative evaluation came in the late 1970s:
“The formative-summative description set ought to be expanded to include a third element, confirmative evaluation” (Misanchuk, 1978, p. 16). Eight years later, Beer and Bloomer (1986) from Xerox suggested a limited strategy for going beyond the formative and summative distinctions in evaluation by focusing on three levels for each type of evaluation:

1. Level one: evaluate programs while they are still in draft form, focusing on the needs of the learners and the developers.

2. Level two: continue to monitor programs after they are fully implemented, focusing on the needs of the learners and the program objectives.

3. Level three: assess the transfer of learning to the real world Geis and Smith (1992, p. 133) report: “The current emphasis is on evaluation as a means of finding out what is working well, why it is working well, and what can be done to improve things.” However, when the quality movement gained prominence and business thinking raised the bar, educators and trainers began to agree, at least in principle, that “quality control requires continuous evaluation including extending the cycle beyond summative evaluation”
(Seels and Richey,1994, p. 59). Summative evaluation has immediate usefulness, but it does not help planners make decisions for the future. Confirmative evaluation, on the other hand, is future-oriented; it focuses on enduring, long-term effects or results over the life cycle of an instructional or non instructional performance intervention: “Enduring or long-term effects refer to those changes that can be identified after the passage of time and are directly linked to participation in [education or training]” (Hanson and
Siegel, 1995, pp. 27–28).

Keller Plan

In the 1960's, Fred S. Keller, J. Gilmour Sherman, and others developed a synthesis of educational methods and practices that has often been called the Keller Plan or the Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) . Key aspects of this teaching method include [1

go-at-your-own-pace

so students can proceed according to their abilities, interests, and personal schedules;

unit-perfection requirement which means students must demonstrate mastery of a unit before proceeding to other units; lectures and demonstrations for motivation

instead of for communication of critical information; stress on the written word for teacher-student communication which helps develop comprehension and expression skills; and tutoring/proctoring which allows repeats on exams, enhanced personal-social interaction, and personalized instruction.

Research studies have shown PSI to have a number of advantages over conventional educational methods, and few disadvantages. Students, especially those who would normally perform at the lower or middle levels, learn significantly more, as measured by final examinations and by tests of long-term retention (given years later). They like the classes and tutoring, and develop good habits that carry over to other courses and learning activities. Disadvantages are mostly concerning extra effort being required by the instructor, a higher drop rate in some courses (especially by students who cannot break their habits of procrastination), and extra room requirements.

References

1. Fred S. Keller. Goodbye, teacher ... J. of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 1(1):79-89, Spring 1968.

2. J. Gilmour Sherman and Robert S. Ruskin. The Personalized System of Instruction. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1978. Vol. 13 in The Instructional Design Library, series ed. Danny G. Langdon.

3

3. J. Gilmour Sherman, Robert S. Ruskin, and George B. Semb, editors. The Personalized System of Instruction: 48 seminal papers. TRI Publications, Lawrence, Kansas, 1982.

Developing Instructional Materials

Designers must make concious efforts to present lessons for learners to fully crasp, making learning effective. Self-paced learning as an instructional format is a means by which learners learn or master certain skills at their individual pace. As learners go through the learning process, they become responsible and learning becomes successful based on the learning objectives and variety of activities. Learners must be catered for individually with different objectives as well as learning activities taking into cognisance each learner's characteristics, preparation, needs as well as interests.

Individual differences must be catered for if effective learning will be achieved and this can be made possible if variety of materials serving the objectives, with more than one instructional sequence is used. Some learners learn fast while others are slow. Some do well with printed materials whereas others perform better with hands on experience. This therefore means that, varied activities reflecting objectives should be prepared, making room for individual learners to make preferred choices.

For example, if an objective states that by the end of the lesson or instruction, learners will be able to say, design a fabric using the marbling technique, the programme may include printed steps to follow, still photographs, a film or videotape and the tools and materials, all focussed on producing a marbled fabric. Some learners may decide to watch the video and move straight to the real work of designing the fabric. Others might prefer reading the steps, study the still photographs before going on to the actual work. Another group might also read the steps, study the photographs, watch the video before proceeding to design the fabric, and there are other learners who will just go straight to designing the fabric using a trial-and-error attempt.

There is a way instructors can check on bad habits such as lack of self-descipline and procrastination with self paced instruction, and that can be acheived through setting deadlines within which some learners can adjust their own study pace so that learning can be beneficial for them.

Views on ID

The course has really been very interesting and very helpful. A lot has been learnt so far from colleagues, the text, case studies etc. Whenever faced with an issue, designers must first of all determine whether there is an instructional problem. This is because certain issues do not need instruction as the measure to address them. If for instance, if there is low output of work due to the breakdown of certain machines or equipments, then there is the need for repairing those machines or equipments and not designing instruction for this purpose.

If there is a Subject Matter Expert (SME) available, the designer need to do a lot of collaborative work with him or her so he or she (designer) can come out with a good material to work with in order to achieve the best results. In the absence of an SME, designers can also read or research into areas they are not conversant with so as to gain the necessary knowledge needed for designing effective instruction.

Designing the Message

Designers must make concious effort in enhancing learners understanding. Designing effective message which basically deals with the presentation of the information (message), that is, how the content or topic is presented. This include using suitable PRE-INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES, to help learners focus on the instruction, using WORDS AND TYPOGRAPHY to signal different aspects of the instruction and then using PICTURES to enhance their (learners) understanding.

Strategies

Effective Instructional strategies enable the learner to relate his existing knowledge of content of an instruction to the new knowledge.Designers can only help learners achieve this if they include these strategies into their lessons. Each objective should have a strategy for treating it. The instructional strategy therefore is a "blueprint" for developing the lesson and as such flexibility in creatively presenting the lesson for learners to be motivated to learn and understand, should as much as possible be employed. Designers should be able to classify your objectives either as a concept, rule, procedure or application, then select the instructional strategy that is appropriate enough to address the objective.

The strategy is like the mothodology you would adopt to carry out the instructional task and as usual the LEARNER who is the focus should be taking into consideration.

Sequencing

The choice of a sequencing scheme depends on the characteristics of learners and the nature of the content. This makes it necessary to determine which sequencing scheme is most appropraite in presenting the information for an instruction. Since learners are the focus, in either the training or learning process, every effort should be made to arouse and maintain their interest. It is not always necessary to follow objectives in a logical manner when sequencing. Objective six (6) may for example, come third in the sequencing. This is to ensure learner motivation.

• After you have developed your objectives as a designer, there is the need to order your content in an appropraite way so that help learners who are your focus for designing the instruction, to achieve those objectives.

Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives determine what learners need to accomplish at the end of the instruction. Designers therefore need to define them clearly.

They help in the design of appropraite instruction, help in evaluating or assessing students' learning and also serve as a guide to learners.

They (objectives) are grouped in three domains namely cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains, and it is important to understand each domain with their respective taxonomies when planning instruction. The domains should reflect in the statement of your objectives and particularly in the higher levels.

Objectives should be stated in behavioral terms and they should focus on outcomes of learning and not the process. An example of an acceptable objective is;

By the end of the instruction, learners will be able to identify the parts of the human body and explain the functions of each. This example really depicts a change in behaviour after going through the instruction, and that is how objective should be set.

Task Analysis

This is the most critical step in the design process. This has to do basically with the content to include in the instruction. It deals with the collection of procedures for designing the content. The following should be noted:

Facts, concepts, principles and rules, procedures, interpersonal skills and attitude, are structures that are associated with task analysis and as designers there is the need to note the differences amongs them and not to confuse them especially with facts and concepts.

In conducting the task analysis, you can either be your own Subject Matter Expert (SME) or need to work with one (SME). In the case of the former, there is the need to "pretend" as if you know nothing about the topic.

In gathering data for any design, interviewing an SME is the best technique and he/she will determine whether to have it (interview) in an office or at a location with the appropraite equipment or conditions.

It is always good to search the web for knowledge about the problem before meeting with the SME.

Definition of roles between the SME and the designer is very essential in analysing task. As SME's ensure that essential and accurate contenet is included, the instructional designers organise and sequence the content efficiently, taking note of learning and instructional theories.

The importance of the characteristics of learners in the planning process

In designing instruction, there is the need to consider the learners for whom a program is being developed. The concept of individual differences matters so much. There is the need to understand these differences and characteristics, and how they provide opportunities or constraints on our designs. These should be taken note of early in the planning process.

Designers should also know that learner motivation is also an important determinant in the planning process. Learners who are highly motivated are likely to respond positively to the instruction than those who are not. The latter need strategies that will build their confidence in the course of the lesson. It is therefore necessary to begin with the easy content and gradually increase to the more difficult. (Simple to complex by Pestalozzi)

Phase 1

All too soon phase 1 of the project has been submitted (last week). It wasn't as easy task though but that hurdle has been taken care of.

My topic revolves around entreprenuership promotion initiatives among young students and the target audience is the distance education teacher-trainee students in the basic and senior secondary schools. The project seeks to stimulate teachers to appreciate the need to create the interest among young graduates the desire to start their own busness ventures.

The unemployment phenomenon in Ghana has reached a very serious point and this is evident in the way young people run to metropolitan areas in search of clerical employments that are very limited. The public sector cannot employ all these young folks and government is overwhelmed with the phenomenon.

Teachers themselves should be able to understand the concept and its tenets to be able to teach it effectively. It is therefore necessary that teachers, (distance education teacher-trainees) in this regard are given a fair idea about the whole idea of entrepreneurship drive so that they can in effect, assist government efforts at creating employable skills among the youth.

I hope to be able to design an effective instruction at the end of the course to address this problem.

VIEWS ABOUT THE VIDEO CONFERENCE

It was really an exciting experience having to meet as colleagues once again to encourage ourselves and to meet with our instructor to brief us on the nitty-gritties of the course. As the name goes-INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN.

We are going to design instruction either as educators, administrators or whatever our schedules entail. Effective instruction makes learning interesting, saves time and money, and it leads to increase in out put.

I hope as we sail through this course, we will be effective designers of instruction for our individual outfits and the nation as a whole.

About me

I am Patricia Appiah-Boateng. I hold a B.ed degree in Art Education from the University of Education, Winneba, post graduate diploma in Distance Education by distance, from the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU).

I work with the University of Education as a graphic artist at the Institute of Educational Development and Extension-Distance Education Department.

My duties as a Graphic Artist in this regard involves evaluating and upgrading levels of computer literacy, and graphic design in desktop publishing (DTP), establishing and maintaining visual standards of the graphic design components of IEDE publications;

· design the IEDE house style for printed materials
· design generic covers, internal layouts and icons for all distance education courses
· produce a house style guide to maintain the house style developed for IEDE
· develop guidelines for visual presentation of diagrammatic information for distance education materials
· train and advice counterparts in IEDE in DTP and information design.
· facilitate in workshops to explain the IEDE design approach and how the writers should present the visual input (illustration/diagrams) for distance education study materials.

My research interest involves using educational technology for effective distance education delivery and I hope this course is going to go a long way to inspire me to higher heights.